Table of Links
Abstract and 1. Introduction
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Methodology
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Experiments and Results
3.1 Language Modeling on vQuality Data
3.2 Exploration on Attention and Linear Recurrence
3.3 Efficient Length Extrapolation
3.4 Long-Context Understanding
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Analysis
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Conclusion, Acknowledgement, and References
A. Implementation Details
B. Additional Experiment Results
C. Details of Entropy Measurement
D. Limitations
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4 Analysis
In this section, we analyze the experimental results of SAMBA by answering the following research questions. The perplexity results on SlimPajama have a fluctuation around ±0.3%. Training speed is measured on 8×H100 GPUs by default. All the models in this section are trained on SlimPajama with 20B tokens and 4K sequence length, unless otherwise specified.
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How to train models with Sliding Window Attention (SWA)? Since SWA has linear complexity with respect to the sequence length, it seems alluring to trade off the batch size to have a longer training sequence length without substantially decreasing the training throughput. However, as shown in Table 5, when the sequence length is increased, the validation perplexity also increases in all context lengths due to smaller batch sizes, and the optimal ratio of sequence length/window size observed is 2, resulting in a training length of 4096.
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Why not hybridize with full attention? Some previous works [FDS+23, LLB+24] suggest a hybrid architecture of Mamba with full attention. However, as shown in Table 6, the extrapolation perplexity is exploding at a context length of 16k even if a single full attention layer is placed at the beginning of the model. Samba also has much better training throughput compared to Mamba-MLP alternatives because self-attention with the FlashAttention 2 implementation is more training efficient than Mamba when the sequence length is 4096.
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How many parameters should be allocated to Attention? Given that Mamba can already capture low-rank information in the sequences through recurrent compression, the attention layers in Samba theoretically will only need to focus on information retrieval where a small number of attention heads should suffice. In Table 7, we explore the techniques of query head grouping [ALTdJ+23, Sha19], for both the Llama and Samba models. Surprisingly, both the Llama-2-SWA architecture and the Samba architecture show improved validation perplexity when there is only one key-value head. We conjecture that this is because small language models can be more easily optimized with fewer KV heads to pay attention to the contexts. We can also see that Samba has a 2× smaller optimal number of query heads than the SWA model, which confirms our hypothesis that Samba can support a smaller number of attention heads.
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Why hybrid is better? We examine the entropy of the attention distributions for both the Samba 1.7B and the Mistral 1.6B models. As shown in Figure 5a, the Samba model has a larger variance of the attention entropy distributed over the layer indices, with an interesting pattern that the upper and lower layers have entropy higher than the middle layers. This may indicate that the attention layers are more specialized in the Samba architecture, with the middle layers focusing on precise retrieval with low-entropy attention, and the top and bottom layers focusing on integrating the global information through high-entropy attention. We can also see in Figure 5b that, compared to the Mamba-MLP model, Samba has a higher entropy of input selection probabilities in the middle layers. This indicates that, given the memory recalling ability of the attention layers, the Mamba layers can focus more on modeling the recurrent structure rather than performing retrieval with precise input selections. This kind of specialization can be beneficial for the downstream model performance, which may explain the impressive results from the Samba architecture. Details on how entropy is calculated are included in Appendix C.
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Fair comparison between Mamba and other linear recurrent models? We can notice that the Short Convolution (SC) operator in Equation (1) is independent to the design of other parts of Mamba and can be applied to other linear recurrent models. As shown in Table 8, we explore the effect of SC on model performance through enhancing Llama-2-SWA, Sliding GLA, and Sliding RetNet with SC. Surprisingly, besides boosting the performance of RetNet, adding SC can also significantly improve the SWA’s performance, while the effect on GLA is less prominent. We think this is because GLA already has the fine-grained decays at the channel level, so the depthwise convolution doesn’t add much of the useful inductive bias for better modeling power. Notably, even with the SC enhancer, Sliding GLA and Sliding RetNet still fall short than the original Samba 421M’s performance shown in Table 3. This further justifies our choice of using Mamba for hybridization. We also find that adding SC to both the SWA and the linear attention layers in hybrid models produces negative results, and we leave it as a future work to understand the surprising effectiveness of SC in language modeling.
5 Conclusion
In this paper, we introduce SAMBA, a simple yet powerful hybrid neural architecture designed for efficient language modeling with unlimited context length. We show that SAMBA substantially outperforms state-of-the-art pure attention-based and SSM-based models across a wide range of benchmarks including common-sense reasoning, language understanding, mathematics and coding. Furthermore, SAMBA exhibits remarkable efficiency in processing long contexts, achieving substantial speedups in prompt processing and decoding throughput compared to the state-of-the-art Transformer architecture. The architecture’s ability to extrapolate memory recall to very long contexts (up to 256K) through minimal fine-tuning underscores its practical applicability for real-world tasks requiring extensive context understanding. This efficient long-term memorization ability is further demonstrated to be useful by our evaluations in downstream long-context summarization tasks. Our analyses also provide insight into the optimal training configurations for hybrid models and underscore the benefits of combining attention mechanisms with SSMs. We find that allocating fewer parameters to the attention mechanism while leveraging Mamba’s strengths for capturing recurrent structures leads to more efficient and effective language modeling. Our results suggest that SAMBA is a strong neural architecture for language modeling with unlimited context length.
Acknowledgement
We want to thank Shuohang Wang and Liyuan Liu for helping with the training infrastructure, Mojan Javaheripi and the team for the pre-training data, Ziyi Yang, Jianwen Zhang, Junheng Hao and the team for helping with post-training. The first author also wants to thank Songlin Yang for her Triton implementation of Mamba.
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:::info
Authors:
(1) Liliang Ren, Microsoft and University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (liliangren@microsoft.com);
(2) Yang Liu†, Microsoft (yaliu10@microsoft.com);
(3) Yadong Lu†, Microsoft (yadonglu@microsoft.com);
(4) Yelong Shen, Microsoft (yelong.shen@microsoft.com);
(5) Chen Liang, Microsoft (chenliang1@microsoft.com);
(6) Weizhu Chen, Microsoft (wzchen@microsoft.com).
:::
:::info
This paper is available on arxiv under CC BY 4.0 license.
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